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Article 4: Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture
How do we track the environmental sustainability of agriculture?
The Dashboard tracks seven indicators of agricultural sustainability and environmental impact:
- Pesticide use per area of cropland;
- Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE);
- Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE);
- Greenhouse gas emissions intensity of agriculture;
- Water stress as measured by freshwater withdrawals for agriculture;
- Irrigated agricultural water use efficiency; and
- The agrobiodiversity index as a measure of the biodiversity present in farming systems.
Globally, agriculture is not environmentally sustainable:
- Pesticide use per area of cropland doubled between 1990 and 2022, indicating potential overuse and associated risks to human health and biodiversity.
- Water stress has remained consistent: irrigated agriculture accounted for 72% of global freshwater withdrawals in 2021 and used 13% of all available freshwater resources each year from 2015 to 2021.
- The Agrobiodiversity Index indicates a moderate level of the diversity of crops and livestock, with a mean score of 56 out of 100 for 80 evaluated countries, meaning that significantly more could be done to conserve agrobiodiversity and harness its contributions for more resilient agriculture.
The pace of previous progress on improving agricultural sustainability seems to have slowed:
- From 1990 to 2020, Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) increased by 22% and Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE) increased by 57%; efficiency gains for both have since plateaued.
- Global average irrigated water use efficiency — the economic value generated per unit of water used — doubled from 2000 to 2014. However, that pace has since stalled.
- While the GHG emissions intensity of agricultural production declined by 11% from 2010 to 2021, total agricultural emissions rose by 6% during this period.
While pesticides enhance crop yields and promote global food security by reducing pest-induced loss, excessive or improper application can harm public health (especially for farmworkers and surrounding communities), cause biodiversity loss, and pollute air and water. Pesticide use per area of cropland, measuring the quantity of herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides applied to agricultural land, serves as a proxy to monitor the potential overuse of pesticides.
Globally, average pesticide use per area of cropland doubled from 1.2 kg/ha in 1990 to 2.4 kg/ha in 2022, indicating growing risks to human health and the environment. However, the indicator cannot account for how the risk of pesticide overuse differs across the world, dependent on regional conditions (such as biodiversity levels and water scarcity) and different levels of exposure (e.g., farm workers are more exposed to pesticide overuse than consumers).
Nitrogen (N) is essential for crop growth and nitrogen fertilizers have been one of the primary drivers of increased crop yields (a key factor promoting food security) achieved over the past century. However, excess nitrogen that is not absorbed by plants can pollute both freshwater and marine water sources or be changed into ammonia by soil microbes, leading to greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and soil and water acidification. Increasing Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) – the ratio between the amount of fertilizer N harvested in agricultural products (outputs) and the amount of fertilizer N applied (inputs) – can reduce excess nutrients lost to the environment, serving as an important indicator for monitoring nitrogen management and more sustainable agricultural systems.
Ongoing NUE data are only available for a large subset of OECD members, for which the median NUE increased by 22% from 1990 to 2020.
Phosphorus (P) is essential for enhancing soil fertility and crop and forage productivity, but excess phosphorus that is not absorbed by plants can pollute both freshwater and marine water sources contributing to eutrophication, algal blooms, and biodiversity loss in water bodies. Excess phosphorus use can also disrupt soil fertility, inhibit the uptake of essential micronutrients, reduce crop yields, and cause nutrient deficiencies in crops. Increasing Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE) – the ratio between the amount of fertilizer P harvested in agricultural products (outputs) and the amount of fertilizer P applied (inputs) – can reduce excess nutrients lost to the environment, serving as an important indicator for monitoring phosphorus management and more sustainable agricultural systems.
Ongoing PUE data are only available for a large subset of OECD members, for which the median PUE increased by 57% from 1990 to 2020. However, phosphorus use efficiency varies significantly across regions, with lower rates in countries rapidly increasing agricultural productivity through higher input use, such as India, China, and Brazil.
Reducing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with agricultural production is essential for achieving a more sustainable agriculture system. Even if fossil fuels were immediately eliminated, emissions from agricultural production (especially methane and nitrous oxide) would still need to be greatly reduced to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Because global population and food demand are projected to continue growing through at least 2050, the emissions intensity of agricultural production, measured in grams of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per 1,000 kilocalories in the global food supply, needs to fall even faster than absolute emissions. Changes to food production practices as well as to consumption patterns (e.g., the amount of food loss and waste, share of animal-based foods in diets, and share of agricultural products used as bioenergy) are necessary to help achieve this required decline in emissions intensity.
The emissions intensity of agricultural production has been falling for decades, driven largely by steady gains in the efficiency of crop and livestock production. From 2010 to 2021, the global GHG emissions intensity of agricultural production declined by 11%. However, total absolute agricultural emissions are still increasing, rising by about 6% from 2010 to 2020.
Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater globally, accounting for approximately 70% of all freshwater withdrawals. Excessive water withdrawals for agriculture lead to the depletion of groundwater resources and the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. It also increases vulnerability to climate change. Water stress is defined as the degree to which water resources (rivers, lakes, aquifers) are being exploited to meet countries’ water demand for agriculture. It is reflected as the total freshwater withdrawn by agriculture as a proportion of available freshwater resources.
While the global average freshwater withdrawal from agriculture as a proportion of available freshwater, known as water stress, has largely remained steady at around 13% of available freshwater resources being used for agriculture each year from 2015 to 2021, there is great geographical variation. Some areas experienced much higher levels of water stress, such as drier regions like the Middle East and North Africa, and withdrew a higher percentage of their available freshwater resources. For instance, over 600% of available water resources were withdrawn for agriculture in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Libya in 2023. Other countries withdrew at much lower rates, such as 11% of the available resources in the United States and 0.2% in Sweden.
Irrigated agriculture accounted for 72% of global freshwater withdrawals in 2021, and it is one of the leading drivers of the increased demand for freshwater use. Improving water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture is essential to addressing water scarcity, which poses a significant threat to global biodiversity and food security. Enhancing water use efficiency also offers multiple co-benefits, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions from water pumping and distribution, improving soil health, and boosting resilience to drought and climate challenges.
From 2000 to 2014, irrigated agriculture water use efficiency, measured by value added in US dollars per cubic meter of water used by the agriculture sector, more than doubled. However, this pace has largely stalled from 2014 to 2020.
Agrobiodiversity is a key component of more sustainable agriculture. It can enhance the resilience and adaptability of farming systems to climate change by improving carbon sequestration in soil and biomass, as well as improving genetic diversity for breeding crops and livestock that are more resilient to climate change and other stressors. The Agrobiodiversity Index (ABDI) is a set of 22 indicators developed to monitor the essential aspects of agrobiodiversity as it relates to food system sustainability – specifically across three key pillars: consumption, production, and genetic resource conservation. The indicators are sorted into three measurement categories: 1) action: indicators that monitor interventions to enhance biodiversity levels, 2) commitment: indicators that measure levels of support for improving biodiversity levels, and 3) status: indicators that evaluate the level of biodiversity in a country. The ABDI scores range from 0 (least desirable) to 100 (most desirable). The Agrobiodiversity Index can be used to assess the diversity of crops and livestock. It is a useful tool for monitoring the state of agrobiodiversity in different countries and regions.
A 2021 paper that evaluated ABDI scores for 80 countries found the mean agrobiodiversity status score to be 56 out of 100. Agrobiodiversity Index scores in consumption and conservation are 14 to 82% higher in developed countries than those of low-income countries. A comparison of the Agrobiodiversity Index scores of 80 countries revealed just 12 countries with high scores (60 to 80 scores) for agrobiodiversity status and action. Overall, this means that significantly more could be done to conserve agrobiodiversity and harness its contributions for more resilient agriculture.
Food security
How do we track food security?
The Dashboard tracks food security with two indicators:
- The share of the global population experiencing moderate or severe food insecurity; and
- Crop yields as a proxy for productivity and thus food availability.
- Food security primarily remains an issue of food distribution rather than food production. As of 2022, 2.4 billion people, or 30% of the global population, were moderately or severely food insecure. This percentage increased significantly from 2019 to 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and has remained steady since then — meaning that the total number of people who are food insecure has increased as the population continues to grow.
- Despite significant improvements in crop yields, with the average global cereal yield increasing from 4.6 tons per hectare in 1990 to 6.7 tons per hectare in 2022, disparities persist. In 2017, developed nations produced an average of 5.8 tons per hectare, while developing countries produced 3.1 tons per hectare.
Unfortunately, since the development of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015, the prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity has been moving in the wrong direction. As of 2022, 2.4 billion people (30% of the global population) were moderately or severely food insecure. This number has remained steady since 2020, after increasing significantly from 2019 to 2020 at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Boosting crop yields is essential for food security and alleviating poverty in developing nations, while limiting further agricultural expansion to natural ecosystems. Crop yield refers to the quantity of crops produced per unit of cultivated land.
Globally, the average cereal yield has seen an impressive rise, surging from 4.6 tons per hectare in 1990 to 6.7 tons per hectare in 2021. During the early 2010s, the yields of the top four global crops, namely maize, rice, wheat, and soybean, responsible for supplying approximately 43% of the world’s dietary energy and 40% of daily protein intake, were increasing at linear rates of 1.6%, 1.0%, 0.9% and 1.3% per year, respectively. However, substantial disparities exist in crop yields between developed and developing countries. In 2017, the average cereal yield in developed nations reached 5.8 tons per hectare, while in developing countries, it stood at 3.1 tons per hectare. This yield discrepancy can be attributed to various factors, including variations in technology, infrastructure, and resource accessibility.
Agricultural policies and programs
How do we track agricultural policies and programs?
The Dashboard tracks agricultural policies and programs that incentivize sustainable agriculture, promote food security, and benefit the environment with the following indicators:
- The share of agricultural subsidies that support conservation or climate objectives;
- Public expenditures on crop insurance;
- The share of countries with water pollution regulations;
- The share of countries with water quantity regulations for agriculture; and
- The share of countries with policies for improved nutrient use efficiency.
- Just 6.4% of roughly USD 600 billion in agricultural subsidies per year from 2019 to 2021 supported conservation or climate objectives, roughly doubling since 2000.
- Crop insurance serves as an important risk mitigation tool, safeguarding farmers’ incomes, and is also being reformed in some regions to incentivize sustainable practices. From 2000 to 2021, global crop insurance increased from $3 billion to $24.2 billion.
- As of 2023, only 39% of countries have implemented water pollution regulations for agriculture.
- More data is needed to understand the adoption of national water quantity regulations, which are essential for sustainable water usage given that agriculture accounts for around 70% of global freshwater withdrawals.
- Several countries have adopted policies for improved nutrient use efficiency to reduce adverse impacts associated with nutrient overuse.
Agricultural subsidies are monetary payments and other types of support provided by governments to farmers or agribusinesses. While some subsidies are given to promote specific farming practices, others focus on research and development, conservation practices, disaster aid, marketing, nutrition assistance, risk mitigation, and more. To incentivize sustainable agriculture, promote food security, and benefit the environment, governments around the world can condition farm financial aid on the protection of forests and other native areas, support integrated projects that bring groups of farmers together with scientists to try out innovative systems that optimize fertilizer use, reward farmers for better environmental performance, and more. By making better use of agricultural subsidies, the world can produce more food while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing food security and nutrition.
However, only 6.4% of global agricultural subsidies from 2019 to 2021, valued at USD 600 billion, supported conservation or climate objectives in 2021, determined by applying the methods used by Searchinger et al. 2020 on updated OECD data.
Crop insurance serves as a risk mitigation tool for safeguarding farmers’ income during periods of unpredictable crop yields, such as those resulting from droughts or floods. The specifics of crop insurance offerings, the extent of coverage, and the subsidies provided by governments can vary from one country to another.
Recently, however, there has been a push to reform crop insurance to incentivize sustainable agriculture, promote food security, and benefit the environment by including sustainable conditionalities. For example, in the United States, the Federal Crop Insurance Program (FCIP) which provides a diverse array of crop insurance products has been reformed to include conditionalities on the sustainability of cropping systems. Some of these conditionalities include cover cropping and diversification. Across the Asia and Pacific region, notable changes have been introduced to crop insurance programs, including the introduction of innovative products like weather index-based insurance. These reforms would encourage farmers to embrace practices that reduce the environmental impacts of agriculture. While global data on crop insurance with sustainable conditionalities is currently not available, from 2000 to 2021, global crop insurance increased from $3 billion to $24.2 billion.
Agricultural production is the largest user of water resources and a major polluter of water resources. Untreated agricultural runoff — containing pesticides, fertilizers, and other pollutants — contaminates water bodies, harms aquatic ecosystems, and poses risks to human health. This leads to the degradation of inland and coastal waters, eutrophication, and groundwater pollution. Regulations on water pollution can be implemented or redesigned to incentivize sustainable agriculture and benefit the environment.
However, in 2023, only 39% of countries had some form of water pollution regulation. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency provides information on how farmers can address the challenge of polluted runoff through the National Water Quality Initiative (NWQI), the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Farm Bill, and other approaches. Though success varies across countries, the European Union employs economic incentives, environmental rules, and information tools to address agricultural water pollution. However, some nations lack effective regulations. In China, for example, poor regulation and overuse of pesticides and fertilizers have made agricultural production the primary water pollution source.
Globally, agriculture is the largest user of water resources, making up around 70% of all freshwater extractions. Additionally, agriculture contributes an even greater portion to what is termed “consumptive water use” because of water loss through crop evapotranspiration. With escalating water shortages in regions where water extraction rates are unsustainable, there is a risk of limiting agricultural output and endangering food security and ecosystems. One approach to establishing sustainable water usage in agriculture is to implement regulations that control the quantity of water used. More research is needed to consistently track national water quantity regulations across the world.
Several countries have implemented standards, regulations, or subsidies to improve nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency as part of broader policy efforts to incentivize sustainable agriculture and benefit the environment. Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential nutrients for crop growth and development, but their inefficient use can lead to environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and economic losses.
While there are no global data sources yet tracking policies around nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency, several countries have implemented standards, regulations, or subsidies for this purpose. For example, in the United States, the U.S. Department of Agriculture provides cost-share programs to farmers to implement conservation practices that reduce nutrient losses. In Argentina, the government has implemented a fertilizer management plan that includes soil testing, crop rotation, and the use of slow-release fertilizers. In Canada, the government has established a nutrient management framework that provides guidelines for fertilizer application rates and timing.